Incentive salience theory both explains the directional component of motivation (in terms of cue attraction or “wanting”) and its energetic component, as a function of the strength of cue attraction. This theory characterizes cue- and reward-triggered approach behavior. But it does not tell us how behavior can show enhanced vigor under reward uncertainty, when cues are inconsistent or resources hidden. Reinforcement theory is also ineffective in explaining enhanced vigor in case reward expectation is low or nil. This paper provides a neurobehavioral interpretation of effort in situations of adversity (which always include some uncertainty about outcomes) that is complementary to the attribution of incentive salience to environmental cues. It is argued that manageable environmental challenges activate an unconscious process of self-determination to achieve “wanted” actions. This unconscious process is referred to as incentive effort, which involves the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, noradrenaline, as well as striatal dopamine. Concretely, HPA-induced dopamine release would have the function to make effort - or effortful actions - “wanted” in a challenging context, in which the environmental cues are poorly predictive of reward - i.e., unattractive. Stress would only emerge in the presence of unmanageable challenges. It is hypothesized that incentive effort is the core psychological basis of will - and is, for this reason, termed “willing.”

Anselme, P. (2025). Unconscious will as a neurobehavioral mechanism against adversity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 169, 105985.